Peer Review: Spanish Period

Shannon did a great job with the pictures she choose and the short descriptions of the different styles.

Emma captured the Spanish period very well with her description and pictures. 

SEE SPANISH RENAISSANCE BELOW 

Peer Reviews 

I enjoyed Maggie's pictures. I liked the Dante chair and the modern example of it. 

Alecia did a good job choosing the modern examples of the Italian Renaissance. I enjoyed the pictures. 

Italian Renaissance 

Renaissance Art and Architecture, painting, sculpture, architecture, and allied arts produced in Europe in the historical period called the Renaissance. Broadly considered, the period covers the 200 years between 1400 and 1600, although specialists disagree on exact dates. The word renaissance literally means "rebirth" and is the French translation of the Italian rinascita. The two principal components of Renaissance style are the following: a revival of the classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and an intensified concern with secular life–interest in humanism and assertion of the importance of the individual. The Renaissance period in art history corresponds to the beginning of the great Western age of discovery and exploration, when a general desire developed to examine all aspects of nature and the world.

  During the Renaissance, artists were no longer regarded as mere artisans, as they had been in the medieval past, but for the first time emerged as independent personalities, comparable to poets and writers. They sought new solutions to formal and visual problems, and many of them were also devoted to scientific experimentation. 

In this context, mathematical or linear perspective was developed, a system in which all objects in a painting or in low-relief sculpture are related both proportionally and rationally. As a result, the painted surface was regarded as a window on the natural world, and it became the task of painters to portray this world in their art. Consequently, painters began to devote themselves more rigorously to the rendition of landscape–the careful depiction of trees, flowers, plants, distant mountains, and cloud-filled skies. Artists studied the effect of light out-of-doors and how the eye perceives all the diverse elements in nature. They developed aerial perspective, in which objects become increasingly less distinct and less sharply colored as they recede from the eye of the viewer. Northern painters, especially those from Flanders and the Netherlands, were as advanced as the Italians in landscape painting and contributed to the innovations of their southern contemporaries by introducing oil paint as a new medium.Although the portrait also developed as a specific genre in the mid-15th century (see  Portraiture), Renaissance painters achieved the greatest latitude with the history, or narrative, picture, in which figures located within a landscape or an architectural environment act out a specific story, taken either from classical mythology or Judeo-Christian tradition. Within such a context, the painter was able to show men, women, and children in a full range of postures and poses, as well as the subjects' diverse emotional reactions and states.The Renaissance of the arts coincided with the development of humanism, in which scholars studied and translated philosophical texts. The use of classical Latin was revived and often favored at this time. The Renaissance was also a period of avid exploration; sea captains began to be more daring in seeking new routes to Asia, which resulted in the discovery and eventual colonization of North and South America. Painters, sculptors, and architects exhibited a similar sense of adventure and the desire for greater knowledge and new solutions; Le Renaissance Art and Architecture, painting, sculpture, architecture, and allied arts produced in Europe in the historical period called the Renaissance. Broadly considered, the period covers the 200 years between 1400 and 1600, although specialists disagree on exact dates. The word renaissance literally means "rebirth" and is the French translation of the Italian rinascita. The two principal components of Renaissance style are the following: a revival of the classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and an intensified concern with secular life–interest in humanism and assertion of the importance of the individual. 

The Renaissance period in art history corresponds to the beginning of the great Western age of discovery and exploration, when a general desire developed to examine all aspects of nature and the world.During the Renaissance, artists were no longer regarded as mere artisans, as they had been in the medieval past, but for the first time emerged as independent personalities, comparable to poets and writers. They sought new solutions to formal and visual problems, and many of them were also devoted to scientific experimentation. In this context, mathematical or linear perspective was developed, a system in which all objects in a painting or in low-relief sculpture are related both proportionally and rationally. As a result, the painted surface was regarded as a window on the natural world, and it became the task of painters to portray this world in their art. Consequently, painters began to devote themselves more rigorously to the rendition of landscape–the careful depiction of trees, flowers, plants, distant mountains, and cloud-filled skies. Artists studied the effect of light out-of-doors and how the eye perceives all the diverse elements in nature. They developed aerial perspective, in which objects become increasingly less distinct and less sharply colored as they recede from the eye of the viewer. Northern painters, especially those from Flanders and the Netherlands, were as advanced as the Italians in landscape painting and contributed to the innovations of their southern contemporaries by introducing oil paint as a new medium.Although the portrait also developed as a specific genre in the mid-15th century (see  Portraiture), Renaissance painters achieved the greatest latitude with the history, or narrative, picture, in which figures located within a landscape or an architectural environment act out a specific story, taken either from classical mythology or Judeo-Christian tradition. Within such a context, the painter was able to show men, women, and children in a full range of postures and poses, as well as the subjects' diverse emotional reactions and states.The Renaissance of the arts coincided with the development of humanism, in which scholars studied and translated philosophical texts. The use of classical Latin was revived and often favored at this time. The Renaissance was also a period of avid exploration; sea captains began to be more daring in seeking new routes to Asia, which resulted in the discovery and eventual colonization of North and South America. Painters, sculptors, and architects exhibited a similar sense of adventure and the desire for greater knowledge and new solutions.

             

Modern Example

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Florence, Italy: Renaissance Art and Architecture

Spanish Architecture and Design

Renaissance Architecture

The ideas promoted in Italy during the Renaissance never managed to fully take root in Spain. Consequently, the life span of Renaissance architecture proper, in an almost purist sense, was rather short. Following the deep impression that the Gothic aesthetic, in all its forms, from the early Gothic to the Flamboyant style, left in the Spanish sensibility, a move towards classical temperance and clean lines was not immediately obvious or In this sense, the Plateresque style provided a means of local interpretation of the decorative elements of Renaissance architecture, such that the prevailing tradition of ornate and often exaggerate structures developed under the dominance of Flamboyant and Isabelline Gothic could be reconciled with the latest fashions.

But under the tutelage of a cosmopolitan King and Emperor, Charles V, well versed in international trends, a more conservative kind of Renaissance architecture was finally promoted in Spain during the XVI century. The process, however, was rather natural, as the court and other patrons relied on the talent that had been created locally over the past century or so, rather using predominantly imported minds to impose a style.

Thus, we have important architects who progress from the Plateresque aesthetic to the more restrained purism of Renaissance architecture, such as Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón, who is most often remembered for his facade of the Cathedral of Salamanca, a typically Plateresque creation. Nevertheless, Gil de Hontañón is also reputed for a number of his works in the most purist tradition.

For instance, he designed the facade of the Colegio Mayor de San Ildefonso, currently part of the University of Alcalá de Henares, on the outskirts of Madrid which he decorated in perfectly symmetrical panels, three horizontal and three vertical, with a narrow central ornamentation in which the Habsburg two-headed eagle presides over a portal rendered grander by three sets of fake double columns 'holding' each of the horizontal sections.


Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón's progression from the Plateresque of Salamanca Cathedral, to the more reserved style of the Colegio Mayor comes to a full circle with the Palacio de los Guzmanes in León. 
A private palace, Gil fully exploits the opportunity to cast clean lines along a facade split into two horizontal sections and equips the building with a spacious internal garden in the style of a cloister with spacious semicircular archeries.

Another important artists of the time, Alonso de Covarrubias was also formed in the prevailing tradition of Flamboyant architecture with Juan Guas, in Toledo Cathedral, where he ultimately acted as master builder from 1534. Covarrubias has left his indelible mark in the town of Toledo through his modifications of the Alcázar or fortress, which dominates the skyline of the former capital of the Kingdom.

Further south, the work of Diego de Siloé was instrumental in the outline of Granada, a city that Charles V wanted to turn into an urban example. A great place to go in Spain, Granada's cathedral is unique among other things because it evidences the transition from Enrique Egas' first plan of the building, still immersed in a Gothic aesthetic, and the final version built by Diego de Siloé, a less sumptuous and equally striking project.

In so far as the purist vein of the Spanish Renaissance is almost a transitional period, leading up to the austere aesthetic proposal put forward by Felipe II and best expressed in the monastery of El Escorial, probably the most representative artist of the style is Pedro Machuca, whose complete architectural oeuvre comprises the grand total of one, single building: the Palace of Emperor Charles V in Granada.

That one building, however, is the masterpiece of Renaissance architecture in Spain. Located inside the complex of La Alhambra, the palace was designed and built by Pedro Machuca, a known artist, primarily involved in painting. Machuca's design first introduced the notion of a round internal patio within a square building, for which many describe its style as Mannerist. Either way, the two-storied patio with its doric and ionic colonnades remains an absolutely staggering place to visit.

Plateresque Renaissance Architecture

he transition from the intricate excesses of the Isabelline style to the unique forms of the Plateresque was guided, primarily, by aesthetic requirements that led to additions of what, ultimately, were Renaissance elements. So much is evident from the earliest constructions that evidence the new fashion, such as the New Cathedral of Salamanca, Segovia Cathedral or some of the elements added to the Cathedral of Seville during the early days of the VI century.
Symbolically, the year 1492 is considered by many to be the time when Spain walked through the threshold of the Renaissance, leaving behind the sinister obscurantism of the Middle Ages. In architectural terms, at least, the reality is that for the best part of XV century artists in the peninsula had exploited every decorative possibility available to them, and it is quite likely that the earliest version of Spanish Renaissance, the Plateresque, emerged primarily as a new ornamental alternative.



One of the pivotal figures in the development of the eclectic Plateresque style was Juan Gil de Hontañón, who had been in contact with Juan Guas, one of the most important exponents of Spanish Flamboyant architecture, in Segovia. As a matter of fact, the layout of Segovia Cathedral, built between 1525 and 1577, is attributed to Gil.

Baroque

The reign of Felipe II coincided with the highest point in the fortunes of the Spanish Empire, on the rise ever since the discovery of the New World, back in 1492. Internally, many were the changes undergone in the social sphere, as the prudent king chose to move the court from the historical capital, Toledo, to Madrid, and to embark on the construction of El Escorial, which would launch Juan de Herrera, its architect, into fame and would put the country on the threshold of Baroque architecture                                        .

Built between 1563 and 1584, El Escorial was a project of such ambition and projection that, once finished, it set the rules for creative activity in the Empire for the foreseeable future. It was the beginning of what has come to be known as Herrerism, a style determined and defined by the austere look of the monastery-cum-palace.

Among the followers of Juan de Herrera's style one prominent representative is Francisco de Mora, whose early training got him involved in the construction of El Escorial. Although he worked primarily in Madrid, his first monumental project was carried out in Uclés, home base of the Order of Santiago. He was involved in constructions at the monastery for over 20 years, including the erection of its church, its western facade and its funeral chapel.

Nevertheless, Francisco de Mora is most famous for his work at the town or Lerma, where the Duke appointed him for the development of an urban space. As well as several churches, he was in charge of erecting the Ducal Palace, a landmark of Spanish Baroque architecture. Cast from the same mold as El Escorial, Mora's creation exudes the same sense of rigid elegance with a flurry of right angles, flat walls decorated only with heraldic crests and protruding towers in each of the corners, crowned with Flemish spires.

It would be precisely Francisco de Mora's nephew, Juan de Mora, who would carry out many of the projects involved in the enhancing and development of Madrid as the capital of the kingdom, once Felipe III ordered the court to return from Valladolid, in 1606. One such project was the completion of the city's main square, the Plaza Mayor, which he embarked upon in 1617. Two years later, the square was finished, largely following the style and design of Juan de Herrera.
The Capital

If you're strolling through the city one day, however, you have a much better chance to experience and appreciate the work of Juan de Mora if you cross Sol and continue through the Calle Mayor, which leads to the Casa de la Villa, former venue of the City Council. The Casa de la Villa is an excellent sample of the evolutioned style of Juan de Herrera, with a similar layout but a less rigid 

whole.                                                  le.

The end of the XVI and beginning of the XVII centuries saw Madrid develop as a real city and therefore much of the early Baroque architecture produced in the kingdom at the time was done in the capital. Among the many churches that were erected during this time, the Collegiate of St Isidore bears special mention.

Conceived by the Jesuit priest Pedro Sánches, the Collegiate served for many years as the cathedral of the city, before the completion the Cathedral of La Almudena in 1993. Like all Jesuit architecture it follows the norms of the church off the Gesù in Rome, with a single nave with chapels on either side. The crossing of the church is crowned with a cupola, designed by Francisco Bautista.

Meanwhile, as the administrative centre of the kingdom became larger, the need arose to build a palace where the King, by now Felipe IV, would be able to seek solace without being too far removed from Madrid. Thus it was decided that a recreational facility should be erected just on the outskirts of the city. That was the germ that gave rise to the Palace of El Buen Retiro, presently almost completely extinct, bar the gardens.

Like most Baroque architecture in Spain, the palace had certain aesthetic resemblance to the monastery of El Escorial, especially in the almost military outlook of its buildings, laid out in a square with towers on the corners topped with Flemish spires. Designed by Alonso Carbonel, El Buen Retiro remained a recreational, not a contemplative, retreat though, and was fittingly equipped with large open spaces and ornate gardens that, to this day give Madrid its very own character.


Modern Examples

Inside the Granada Cathedral

Peer Reviews

Mackenzie did a great job breaking down the 4 civilizations of the Americas. It was well written. Sammy showed great modern examples of these cultures displayed in interior design. Both did a good job!

The Americas

The Aztecs

Tenochtitlan

At the time of the Spanish conquest in 1521, the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan was among the largest cities in the world, with perhaps as many as 200,000 inhabitants. In less than 200 years, it evolved from a small settlement on an island in the western swamps of Lake Texcoco into the powerful political, economic, and religious center of the greatest empire of Precolumbian Mexico. Tenochtitlan was a city of great wealth, obtained through the spoils of tribute from conquered regions. Of astounding beauty and impressive scale, its towering pyramids were painted in bright red and blue, and its palaces in dazzling white. Colorful, busy markets with a bewiMost of the construction in Tenochtitlan took place during the reigns of four Aztec kings beginning in the 1470s. Built largely upon land reclaimed from Lake Texcoco, the city was laid out on a grid, inspired by the still visible ruins of the ancient city of Teotihuacan of a thousand years earlier. Its network of streets and canals teemed with canoes that transported people and goods within the city and across the lake to towns on the shore, to which it was linked by three raised causeways. Two aqueducts supplied fresh water.


At the heart of Tenochtitlan was the Sacred Precinct, the religious and ceremonial center not just of the city, but of the empire as well. Surrounded by a masonry wall of serpents, this enclave of about 380 by 330 yards could hold more than 8,000 people within its precincts. The temples of the most important Aztec gods were here. There was also a ball court, priests' quarters, and schools for training young noblemen for the priesthood. Adjacent to the Sacred Precinct, sumptuous palaces of the kings and nobles included beautiful gardens, aviaries, and zoos. Administration buildings were there as well. Commoners lived at a distance and were organized into neighborhoods, called calpulli, with their own local temples and markets. Those populations included laborers and farmers as well as craft specialists such as potters, weavers, sculptors, lapidaries, featherworkers, and soldiers.



On a fateful day in August 1521, life in this magnificent urban center changed forever. Shortly after the fall of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards razed the already devastated city and built the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain on its ruins. They named the new metropolis Mexico City, which today, again, is one of the most populous cities in the world.




AZTEC ARCHITECTURE

The Aztec Empire is remembered for many things. One of its most interesting qualities is the archetecture and construction techniques. The Aztec Empire is not remembered by most people as a mecca of technological and engineering skill. This is a misconseption. The Aztecs built some of the most beautiful and ornate buildings found in South America. The buildings continue to inspire the viewer.

The Aztec people had diverse architectual styles. They built everything from regular homes to palaces and great pyramids. They are best remembered for the twin-temple style pyramid. This would either consist of two matching temples being constructed side by side, or one largge pyramid with two temples on top. Unlike the pyramids of ancient Egypt, these temples were not huge coffins for royalty. The temples were usually set in a city center surrounded by perhaps a palace and several smaller/lessor shrines. There was no single style of temple that was built in the Aztec Empire. In the city of Caliztlahuaca, the temple was built in a circular pattern. This city was also known for its private homes, "...all houses, commoner and elite, had well constructed wall foundations of cut stones." This shows the trend in Aztec cities. The Aztecs led their region in techology and engineering. This is in part due to their city-state government and the competition between cities to build the biggest and the best. The city of Tenochhtitlan was by all accounts the largest and most grandiose, but the other lessor cities still felt the need to compete against each other. Which alongside their development of archetecture the Aztecs established a base of their culture through their written and artistic world.



Aztec Colors & Art


Every color was valuable for the Aztecs, but there were ten or so that had a special meaning: probably the most important was blue-turquoise, because turquoise and jade stones were the equivalent of gold and silver for the Spanish. These metals were known and appreciated by the Aztecs - they linked them to the light and radiance of the Sun and the Moon - but green jade represented fertile vegetation, and blue turquoise mirrored the water of rivers, lakes and seas, and the daytime sky. In Náhuatl (the Aztec language still spoken by some 8-10 million Mexicans) the word for turquoise is ‘xihuitl’ and it’s also used to refer to a herb, comets, the year, and to anything precious. That’s why in the codices the artists often played on the meaning of words: for example, when writing a year sign it was often painted blue or accompanied by a herb leaf; and rulers bore a type of pointed crown (diadem) made of turquoise mosaic, to represent one of the ruler’s titles - ‘Lord of Time or of the Year’ (the god of rulers was called ‘Xiuhtecuhtli’ or ‘Year Lord’ or ‘Lord Precious’).








Common Types of Art


There was a rich variety of art in the empire. Richly coloured clothing, architecture, ceremonial knives, head dresses - many things were adorned with jewels and feathers. It is said that the emperor never wore the same clothes twice. His head piece that supposedly belonged toEmperor Montezuma II is a splash of bright green feathers, embroidered with gold and blue. Noble families had ear pieces, bracelets and necklaces.

Stories were commonly written in pictures, giving more opportunity for art. The pictographs may show the most recent conquest, or the sacrifices of the priests, or even daily life.

Statues made of stone, as well as Aztec masks, pottery, shields, knives, carved pillars and painted walls.

Art could be made with gold, silver, copper, jewels, feathers, coral, clay and stone, to name a few. As mentioned before, many of materials were not native to the region, but had to be bartered for.

Mosaics are very common in ancient Aztec art. Masks would be covered in turquoise, or shells (More on the making and purpose of Aztec masks...). Take for example the beautiful two-headed snake, probably worn as an ornament during ceremonial events, on display at the British Museum (see link below).
Characteristics

Ancient Aztec art was actually very lifelike. Many of their statues of people, as well as animals, look amazingly realistic. They also show age, and a great deal of expression. The art looks alive - but then again, much of it is about death itself. It again reflects the people's passion to avoid death and disaster, and then to conquer even that if it came
Modern Applications





























A Little Incan Architecture













The Trapezoid













Moray





This unique archaeological site is one of the best examples—along with Machu Picchu—of what might be called extreme Inca landscaping. Three enormous pits, each with beautifully curved sides that staircase down like the interiors of titanic flowerpots, have been carved out of the earth to depths of up to 100 feet and more. Air temperatures between the top and bottom layers can differ by more than 20 degrees, which has led some researchers to theorize that Moray was an Inca agricultural site where experiments on crops were conducted.

















Tipon






The Inca were brilliant engineers who strove to integrate their architecture with its natural surroundings. Tipon, a 500-acre site built around a spring near Cusco, has been called their masterpiece of water management. Because the waterworks were constructed as part of a country estate for Inca nobility, Tipon has beautiful stone structures akin to those at Machu Picchu, built in the imperial Inca style, with trapezoidal doors, and serviced by finely cut stone fountains. The intricate baths and irrigation channels still function five centuries after the Spanish conquest, which provides Tipon with an endless, soothing soundtrack of running water.

History Specials: Coroner's Report - Aztec Sacrifice

Peer Review

I think Micah did a good job of summarizing the Gothic period and important architectural elements that defines its architecture. The summary was short and very informative. They video was also a nice choice. 

BUILDING THE GREATEST CATHEDRALS (Documentary) History/Architect/Religion

Romanesque vs Gothic Architecture

  EC

Really good video explaining the differences between Romanesque and Gothic Architecture and how to identify the differences.

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

Fundamentally, Gothic architecture transformed castles, churches, cathedrals and pretty much the whole of Europe!

This style of architecture developed because of common architectural problems in Medieval times.

Back in the 1100s-1200s, building skills were extremely limited. Stone castles were rudimentary - dark, cold, and damp.

Gothic architecture tried to solve some of these unpleasant problems, and created light, pleasant and airy buildings. Before the Gothic, architecture was functional. Now, architecture became beautiful.



Some Gothic buildings - particularly churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster, in York, England (the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe) - were rendered into awe-inspiring places of piety and worship, as a result of their phenomenal Gothic design.

Many castles adopted some of the characteristics of Gothic architecture, too. They became transformed from dank living environments into majestic, light and pleasant residences for the lords and ladies within.

Don't forget, though, that the term 'gothic architecture' is a retrospective term. Medieval people wouldn't have used it. Back in Medieval times, this form of building was called 'the modern style'.

1. Grand, Tall Designs, Which Swept Upwards With Height and Grandeur

The magnificent Gothic exterior of York Minster in the UK.

In the times before Gothic architecture, Early Medieval architects struggled to spread the weight of heavy stone walls.

This meant that most towers needed to be short, and buildings thin, otherwise the sheer weight of higher levels (or large rooms and halls) would collapse into themselves.

One of the fundamental characteristics of Gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers.

This all meant that Gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights. It allowed them to reach up to the heavens - perfect for cathedrals and churches.

The cathedral pictured above is York Minster

This is the famous Dom - or cathedral - of Cologne. It's an amazing example of the Gothic style.

2. The Flying Buttress

These flying buttresses are a feature of Gothic architecture. They're part of the St Vitus Cathedral in Prague Castle.

The flying buttress is the defining external characteristic of Gothic architecture. These buttresses effectively spread the weight of the new designs, taking the weight off the walls and transferring force directly to the ground.

However, what's particularly notable about the flying buttress is that it's decorative, too.

Rather than just being a simple support, buttresses were often elaborately designed and extremely decorative. They appeared to dart and sweep around each building, giving a sense of movement and of grandeur missing from previous architectural designs.

3. The Pointed Arch

The innovation of the pointed arch which was the defining internal characteristic of Gothic architecture. Its significance was both practical and decorative.

The pointed arch effectively distributed the force of heavier ceilings and bulkier designs, and could support much more weight than previous, simple pillars.

The stronger arches allowed for much more vertical height, too - they literally reached up to the heavens.

The Gothic arch wasn't just a workhorse. It had an aesthetic value and beauty which influenced many other features of Gothic design - most notably the vaulted ceiling.

Malbork Castle in Poland has some excellent examples of pointed ceilings.

4. The Vaulted Ceiling

The vaulted ceiling was an innovation which lead on from the achievements of the pointed arch.

The delicate vaulted ceilings of Malbork Castle in Poland. These ceilings are another feature of Gothic architecture.

Irregular, vaulted ceilings utilised the technology of the pointed arch to spread force and weight from upper floors. The arch also provided the impression of height and magnificence, giving the vaulted ceiling a feeling of grandeur and elegance.

The distribution of force within the vaulted ceiling enabled vaults to be built in different shapes and sizes, too. Previously, vaults could only have been circular or rectangular.

The picture above is again an example from Malbork Castle, in Poland.

5. The Light and Airy Interior

Before Gothic architecture, castles and early Medieval buildings were pretty depressing places to live  or worship in.

Castles, in particular, were damp and mold, as most weren't built strong enough to support slate or stone roofing. Although these fortresses could more or less prop up wooden roofs, these let in the rain.

If that wasn't depressing enough, these old environments tended to be dark and dingy. The windows were generally tiny, as the force of the walls would collapse into themselves if they included any larger glass works.

Gothic architecture strove to be the exact antithesis to this older Medieval style of building.

It emphasised light, bright windows and airy interiors, transforming castles and churches into more pleasant and majestic environments.You can see the height, light and airy nature of the inside of Cologne Cathedral. This is a great example of Gothic architecture.

6. The Gargoyles of Gothic Architecture

A classic gargoyle - you can see his dual purpose as a decoration and also as a water-spout.

One of the most notable characteristics of Gothic architecture is the gargoyle. Gargoyles are decorative, monstrous little creatures, perched at along the roofs and battlements of Gothic buildings and castles.

Gargoyles have a practical purpose: they're spouts, enabling rainwater to drain off the roof and gush through their mouths, before plummeting to the ground (guttering is a relatively recent innovation!).

However, gargoyles had another intended purpose: to strike fear into the hearts of ill-educated Medieval peasants, scaring them into the church or cathedral. Many gargoyles include elements of the grotesque: exaggerated, evil features or threatening poses, which would have leered down from on-high.

In a world marked with fear and superstition, these creepy creatures would undoubtedly have encouraged many to seek solace and safety inside of a church or cathedral- protected from the demons and ghouls which roamed outside. The gargoyle is one of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture, and sticks in the mind even to today.

The gargoyle is one of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture.

7. The Emphasis Upon the Decorative Style and the Ornate

Gothic architecture marked the first time that beauty and aesthetic values had been incorporated into building design. This revolutionised the way that Medieval architects began to think of buildings. Architecture was no longer just functional - it began to have merit and meaning in its own right.

This doorway of Cologne Dom exemplifies the ornate, Gothic style.

Increasingly ambitious and ornate designs of church, cathedral and castle came to be built. Rivalry and competition drew different groups of builders to conceive and construct grander and more decorative designs, for the glory of the Christian religion.

This tremendous spire of the Dom in Cologne, Germany, shows the reach, height, grandeur and intricate detail of the Gothic style.

How "The Modern Style" Became Associated With Barbarians: A Quick History of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture revolutionised the appearance of Mid-Medieval buildings. Do remember though, that 'gothic' is actually a retrospective term. It wouldn't have been used in Medieval times. This style of architecture was, back then, called the "Modern Style", and it was a revolutionary influence for all castles, churches and palaces in Europe.

The style originally became popular in France from the 1150s, and spread with surprising speed across the whole of Europe.

Some 300 years later, in the 1450s, this style began to go out of fashion. Renaissance architects, the new vogue, started to pour scorn upon this style of architecture.

They derided it as being old-fashioned and uncouth, because it was fantastical, exaggerated and daring. Their Renaissance style was classical, solid, pure, and symmetrical.

To express their scorn, the Renaissance architects actually coined the term 'gothic architecture'. 'Gothic' was a pejorative term, as the goths were barbarians who had wreaked havoc on Europe hundreds of years earlier. The choice of "Gothic architecture" expressed their disgust for an architectural style that they felt had blighted the face of Europe.

Atmospheric, Autumn arches of a ruined cathedral in Wales, UK. :

However, the Gothic style was - and is to today - absolutely unstoppable. In the mid 1600s, the style resurfaced, and was re-invented for more modern audiences. The 'gothic revival' period (or the "neo-Gothic" period; also referred to in England as the "Victorian Gothic") saw many of the characteristics of Gothic architecture re-invented for more modern buildings.

Buildings built in the Gothic revival style include the Houses of Parliament in London; Parliament Hill in Ontario, Washington Cathedral, and many campuses of 1800s Universities worldwide.

These adopted the common characteristics of Gothic architecture in a more modern style.

The Gothic style is still phenomenally popular today, and is the design-of-choice for new churches, cathedrals and similar buildings in Europe and the Americas.

Many of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture have been adopted into more modern architectural designs, and our current aesthetic style owes a great deal to the roots of the Gothic architecture movement in Medieval times.

Modern Examples 

Peer Review 

Sammy did a very good job summarizing the Romanesque and Islamic periods. The pictures were well chosen. I think the picture of the church for the Romanesque period broke down the space well and explained what each room was. 

Allysia did a great job finding interesting modern applications for both the the Romanesque and Islamic. The pictures she found of the historical buildings were beautiful. 

The Alhambra, Granada, Spain BBC World Wonders YouTube

Islamic Period

Islam is the religious faith preached by the Arab prophet Mohammed. During the five hundred years after Mohammed's death in A.D. 632, Islam spread far beyond its place of origin in the Arabian Peninsula. The followers of Mohammed, called Muslims, conquered the rest of the Middle East, as well as North Africa, Spain, central Asia, and north and central India. Most of the conquered people accepted the Islamic religion.


As Islam spread, a distinctive style of Islamic art gradually developed. It was used mainly for religious architecture, book illustrations, and the decoration of pottery, metalware, and other useful objects. Islamic art was influenced by the artistic styles of the conquered regions. These styles included late Roman, Byzantine, and Persian art.


The development of Islamic art was also influenced by two religious restrictions. Mohammed warned artists not to imitate God, the creator of all life, by making images of living things. Most religious art therefore consisted of ornamental designs that did not represent people or animals. The second restriction discouraged the use of costly materials. Islamic artists, therefore, worked mainly with brass, clay, and wood. They learned to decorate objects made of these less expensive materials so skillfully that they looked as beautiful as silver or gold.


Design Characteristics


The restriction on making images led to the development of one of the most outstanding features of Islamic art. Artists avoided depicting likelike forms. Instead, they developed a special kind of decoration, called arabesque. An arabesque is a very complicated design. It can consist of twisting patterns of vines, leaves, and flowers. It can be made up of geometric shapes and patterns of straight lines, or it can have curving lines that twist and turn over each other. Sometimes animal shapes were used, but they were always highly stylized and not lifelike.


Another important characteristic of Islamic art is the use of calligraphy, or beautiful handwriting. Arabic, the language of most Islamic texts, can be beautifully written in several different kinds of script. These include the straight, geometric Kufic script and the rounded, flowing Naskhi. Islamic artists used Arabic script (which is read from right to left) as part of their designs for religious books, wall decorations, and art objects. Especially beautiful calligraphy and decoration were used for copies of the Koran, the holy book of the Islamic faith.


Architecture


The religious buildings known as mosques, where Muslims worship, are among the most important examples of Islamic architecture. Other kinds of buildings include madrasahs, or religious schools; tombs; and palaces.


Mosques
The first mosques were simple buildings made of wood and clay. Then, as the world of Islam grew in size and power, large mosques of cut stone and brick were built. Because no Islamic building tradition yet existed, these early mosques were modeled after Christian churches. The oldest existing mosque, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, was built in 691. It has many features of Byzantine Christian churches, including Grecian-style columns and mosaic decorations.


Muslim architects soon began to develop a new type of religious building, designed specifically for Islamic worship. An early example of the new design is the Great Mosque in Damascus, begun about 705. It is entered through a rectangular court with covered passageways on three sides. In the court is a fountain for washing before prayer. The fourth wall of the court is closest to Mecca, the holy city of Islam. All Muslims face in the direction of Mecca when they pray. The wall is marked by a small, arched prayer niche. Over the aisle leading to this niche is a dome. A tower, or minaret, is used to call the faithful to prayer.


Other architects developed variations on this basic style. Some mosques have domes over each end of the aisle leading to the prayer niche. Other mosques have a large central dome. Some domes are ridged on the outside and resemble large melons. Inside, the ceilings of domes are often covered with decorative forms that resemble honeycombs, scales, or stalactites (icicle-like formations found in caves). Many mosques, especially those in Spain, North Africa, and Persia, are covered with tiles. In the 1500's and 1600's mosques became more complex, with many domes and minarets. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also called the Blue Mosque), in Istanbul, Turkey, is a typical example.





Madrasahs and Tombs
Madrasahs, or religious schools, were often built next to mosques. They are four-sided structures built around a central court. Each side has a large arched hall that opens onto the courtyard. Students attended lectures in the large halls and lived in smaller rooms within the structure.


Sometimes the tomb of a ruler was part of a complex of buildings that also included a mosque and a madrasah. The tomb-mosque of Sultan Hasan, built in the mid-1300's in Cairo, Egypt, is such a complex. It is laid out like a cross, with four halls opening off a large square court.


Another well-known tomb is that of the Tatar warrior Tamerlane, which was built in the city of Samarkand about 1400. (Today Samarkand is part of Uzbekistan.) This building has a melon-shaped dome covered with brilliant blue and gold tiles. The tiles are made of glazed earthenware cut into various sizes and arranged in elaborate patterns. Perhaps the most famous Islamic tomb of all is the Taj Mahal in Agra, India. It was built in the 1600's by the ruler Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife. The Taj Mahal is so renowned that its very name calls up images of almost unreal splendor and beauty. An article on the Taj Mahal can be found in this encyclopedia.


Palaces
The early Muslim rulers, or caliphs, were used to desert life; they did not like living in crowded cities. They built palaces in the desert where they could go to relax and hunt. The palaces looked like Roman fortresses, for they were built of stone and surrounded by walls with big towers. The throne rooms, prayer rooms, baths, and living quarters were decorated with murals and mosaics.


In the 700's the capital of the Muslim world moved from Damascus, Syria, to Baghdad, Mesopotamia (now Iraq). The architecture of palaces changed as a result of the move. Domed palaces were built of brick covered with thick layers of stucco, and the interiors were decorated with stucco reliefs. In the Jawsaq Palace, built about 850 in Samarra, Mesopotamia, the stucco ornament was of three distinct styles. One type showed deeply carved vine forms, and another added patterns to the surface of the main design. The third style used more abstract patterns, as in the metalwork of Central Asian nomads. These three styles contributed to the development of arabesque decoration, which became typical of Muslim art all over the world.


Of later palaces, the Alhambra at Granada, Spain, built in the 1300's, is the best known. Its many rooms are built around three open courts. The Court of the Myrtles features a long rectangular pool flanked by hedges. In the center of the inner Court of the Lions stands a fountain supported by twelve lions. The lower part of the palace walls are decorated with colored tiles set in geometric patterns. Painted and gilded plaster designs cover the upper part of the walls. Arabic inscriptions in the midst of the ornament say that there is "no conqueror but Allah."










The Alhambra







The Alhambra







The Alhambra







Mohammed Ali Mosque, Egypt







Royal Mosque, Pakistan













The Alhambra


Modern Examples