Peer Reviews

Mackenzie did a great job breaking down the 4 civilizations of the Americas. It was well written. Sammy showed great modern examples of these cultures displayed in interior design. Both did a good job!

The Americas

The Aztecs

Tenochtitlan

At the time of the Spanish conquest in 1521, the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan was among the largest cities in the world, with perhaps as many as 200,000 inhabitants. In less than 200 years, it evolved from a small settlement on an island in the western swamps of Lake Texcoco into the powerful political, economic, and religious center of the greatest empire of Precolumbian Mexico. Tenochtitlan was a city of great wealth, obtained through the spoils of tribute from conquered regions. Of astounding beauty and impressive scale, its towering pyramids were painted in bright red and blue, and its palaces in dazzling white. Colorful, busy markets with a bewiMost of the construction in Tenochtitlan took place during the reigns of four Aztec kings beginning in the 1470s. Built largely upon land reclaimed from Lake Texcoco, the city was laid out on a grid, inspired by the still visible ruins of the ancient city of Teotihuacan of a thousand years earlier. Its network of streets and canals teemed with canoes that transported people and goods within the city and across the lake to towns on the shore, to which it was linked by three raised causeways. Two aqueducts supplied fresh water.


At the heart of Tenochtitlan was the Sacred Precinct, the religious and ceremonial center not just of the city, but of the empire as well. Surrounded by a masonry wall of serpents, this enclave of about 380 by 330 yards could hold more than 8,000 people within its precincts. The temples of the most important Aztec gods were here. There was also a ball court, priests' quarters, and schools for training young noblemen for the priesthood. Adjacent to the Sacred Precinct, sumptuous palaces of the kings and nobles included beautiful gardens, aviaries, and zoos. Administration buildings were there as well. Commoners lived at a distance and were organized into neighborhoods, called calpulli, with their own local temples and markets. Those populations included laborers and farmers as well as craft specialists such as potters, weavers, sculptors, lapidaries, featherworkers, and soldiers.



On a fateful day in August 1521, life in this magnificent urban center changed forever. Shortly after the fall of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards razed the already devastated city and built the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain on its ruins. They named the new metropolis Mexico City, which today, again, is one of the most populous cities in the world.




AZTEC ARCHITECTURE

The Aztec Empire is remembered for many things. One of its most interesting qualities is the archetecture and construction techniques. The Aztec Empire is not remembered by most people as a mecca of technological and engineering skill. This is a misconseption. The Aztecs built some of the most beautiful and ornate buildings found in South America. The buildings continue to inspire the viewer.

The Aztec people had diverse architectual styles. They built everything from regular homes to palaces and great pyramids. They are best remembered for the twin-temple style pyramid. This would either consist of two matching temples being constructed side by side, or one largge pyramid with two temples on top. Unlike the pyramids of ancient Egypt, these temples were not huge coffins for royalty. The temples were usually set in a city center surrounded by perhaps a palace and several smaller/lessor shrines. There was no single style of temple that was built in the Aztec Empire. In the city of Caliztlahuaca, the temple was built in a circular pattern. This city was also known for its private homes, "...all houses, commoner and elite, had well constructed wall foundations of cut stones." This shows the trend in Aztec cities. The Aztecs led their region in techology and engineering. This is in part due to their city-state government and the competition between cities to build the biggest and the best. The city of Tenochhtitlan was by all accounts the largest and most grandiose, but the other lessor cities still felt the need to compete against each other. Which alongside their development of archetecture the Aztecs established a base of their culture through their written and artistic world.



Aztec Colors & Art


Every color was valuable for the Aztecs, but there were ten or so that had a special meaning: probably the most important was blue-turquoise, because turquoise and jade stones were the equivalent of gold and silver for the Spanish. These metals were known and appreciated by the Aztecs - they linked them to the light and radiance of the Sun and the Moon - but green jade represented fertile vegetation, and blue turquoise mirrored the water of rivers, lakes and seas, and the daytime sky. In Náhuatl (the Aztec language still spoken by some 8-10 million Mexicans) the word for turquoise is ‘xihuitl’ and it’s also used to refer to a herb, comets, the year, and to anything precious. That’s why in the codices the artists often played on the meaning of words: for example, when writing a year sign it was often painted blue or accompanied by a herb leaf; and rulers bore a type of pointed crown (diadem) made of turquoise mosaic, to represent one of the ruler’s titles - ‘Lord of Time or of the Year’ (the god of rulers was called ‘Xiuhtecuhtli’ or ‘Year Lord’ or ‘Lord Precious’).








Common Types of Art


There was a rich variety of art in the empire. Richly coloured clothing, architecture, ceremonial knives, head dresses - many things were adorned with jewels and feathers. It is said that the emperor never wore the same clothes twice. His head piece that supposedly belonged toEmperor Montezuma II is a splash of bright green feathers, embroidered with gold and blue. Noble families had ear pieces, bracelets and necklaces.

Stories were commonly written in pictures, giving more opportunity for art. The pictographs may show the most recent conquest, or the sacrifices of the priests, or even daily life.

Statues made of stone, as well as Aztec masks, pottery, shields, knives, carved pillars and painted walls.

Art could be made with gold, silver, copper, jewels, feathers, coral, clay and stone, to name a few. As mentioned before, many of materials were not native to the region, but had to be bartered for.

Mosaics are very common in ancient Aztec art. Masks would be covered in turquoise, or shells (More on the making and purpose of Aztec masks...). Take for example the beautiful two-headed snake, probably worn as an ornament during ceremonial events, on display at the British Museum (see link below).
Characteristics

Ancient Aztec art was actually very lifelike. Many of their statues of people, as well as animals, look amazingly realistic. They also show age, and a great deal of expression. The art looks alive - but then again, much of it is about death itself. It again reflects the people's passion to avoid death and disaster, and then to conquer even that if it came
Modern Applications





























A Little Incan Architecture













The Trapezoid













Moray





This unique archaeological site is one of the best examples—along with Machu Picchu—of what might be called extreme Inca landscaping. Three enormous pits, each with beautifully curved sides that staircase down like the interiors of titanic flowerpots, have been carved out of the earth to depths of up to 100 feet and more. Air temperatures between the top and bottom layers can differ by more than 20 degrees, which has led some researchers to theorize that Moray was an Inca agricultural site where experiments on crops were conducted.

















Tipon






The Inca were brilliant engineers who strove to integrate their architecture with its natural surroundings. Tipon, a 500-acre site built around a spring near Cusco, has been called their masterpiece of water management. Because the waterworks were constructed as part of a country estate for Inca nobility, Tipon has beautiful stone structures akin to those at Machu Picchu, built in the imperial Inca style, with trapezoidal doors, and serviced by finely cut stone fountains. The intricate baths and irrigation channels still function five centuries after the Spanish conquest, which provides Tipon with an endless, soothing soundtrack of running water.

History Specials: Coroner's Report - Aztec Sacrifice

Peer Review

I think Micah did a good job of summarizing the Gothic period and important architectural elements that defines its architecture. The summary was short and very informative. They video was also a nice choice. 

BUILDING THE GREATEST CATHEDRALS (Documentary) History/Architect/Religion

Romanesque vs Gothic Architecture

  EC

Really good video explaining the differences between Romanesque and Gothic Architecture and how to identify the differences.

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

Fundamentally, Gothic architecture transformed castles, churches, cathedrals and pretty much the whole of Europe!

This style of architecture developed because of common architectural problems in Medieval times.

Back in the 1100s-1200s, building skills were extremely limited. Stone castles were rudimentary - dark, cold, and damp.

Gothic architecture tried to solve some of these unpleasant problems, and created light, pleasant and airy buildings. Before the Gothic, architecture was functional. Now, architecture became beautiful.



Some Gothic buildings - particularly churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster, in York, England (the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe) - were rendered into awe-inspiring places of piety and worship, as a result of their phenomenal Gothic design.

Many castles adopted some of the characteristics of Gothic architecture, too. They became transformed from dank living environments into majestic, light and pleasant residences for the lords and ladies within.

Don't forget, though, that the term 'gothic architecture' is a retrospective term. Medieval people wouldn't have used it. Back in Medieval times, this form of building was called 'the modern style'.

1. Grand, Tall Designs, Which Swept Upwards With Height and Grandeur

The magnificent Gothic exterior of York Minster in the UK.

In the times before Gothic architecture, Early Medieval architects struggled to spread the weight of heavy stone walls.

This meant that most towers needed to be short, and buildings thin, otherwise the sheer weight of higher levels (or large rooms and halls) would collapse into themselves.

One of the fundamental characteristics of Gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers.

This all meant that Gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights. It allowed them to reach up to the heavens - perfect for cathedrals and churches.

The cathedral pictured above is York Minster

This is the famous Dom - or cathedral - of Cologne. It's an amazing example of the Gothic style.

2. The Flying Buttress

These flying buttresses are a feature of Gothic architecture. They're part of the St Vitus Cathedral in Prague Castle.

The flying buttress is the defining external characteristic of Gothic architecture. These buttresses effectively spread the weight of the new designs, taking the weight off the walls and transferring force directly to the ground.

However, what's particularly notable about the flying buttress is that it's decorative, too.

Rather than just being a simple support, buttresses were often elaborately designed and extremely decorative. They appeared to dart and sweep around each building, giving a sense of movement and of grandeur missing from previous architectural designs.

3. The Pointed Arch

The innovation of the pointed arch which was the defining internal characteristic of Gothic architecture. Its significance was both practical and decorative.

The pointed arch effectively distributed the force of heavier ceilings and bulkier designs, and could support much more weight than previous, simple pillars.

The stronger arches allowed for much more vertical height, too - they literally reached up to the heavens.

The Gothic arch wasn't just a workhorse. It had an aesthetic value and beauty which influenced many other features of Gothic design - most notably the vaulted ceiling.

Malbork Castle in Poland has some excellent examples of pointed ceilings.

4. The Vaulted Ceiling

The vaulted ceiling was an innovation which lead on from the achievements of the pointed arch.

The delicate vaulted ceilings of Malbork Castle in Poland. These ceilings are another feature of Gothic architecture.

Irregular, vaulted ceilings utilised the technology of the pointed arch to spread force and weight from upper floors. The arch also provided the impression of height and magnificence, giving the vaulted ceiling a feeling of grandeur and elegance.

The distribution of force within the vaulted ceiling enabled vaults to be built in different shapes and sizes, too. Previously, vaults could only have been circular or rectangular.

The picture above is again an example from Malbork Castle, in Poland.

5. The Light and Airy Interior

Before Gothic architecture, castles and early Medieval buildings were pretty depressing places to live  or worship in.

Castles, in particular, were damp and mold, as most weren't built strong enough to support slate or stone roofing. Although these fortresses could more or less prop up wooden roofs, these let in the rain.

If that wasn't depressing enough, these old environments tended to be dark and dingy. The windows were generally tiny, as the force of the walls would collapse into themselves if they included any larger glass works.

Gothic architecture strove to be the exact antithesis to this older Medieval style of building.

It emphasised light, bright windows and airy interiors, transforming castles and churches into more pleasant and majestic environments.You can see the height, light and airy nature of the inside of Cologne Cathedral. This is a great example of Gothic architecture.

6. The Gargoyles of Gothic Architecture

A classic gargoyle - you can see his dual purpose as a decoration and also as a water-spout.

One of the most notable characteristics of Gothic architecture is the gargoyle. Gargoyles are decorative, monstrous little creatures, perched at along the roofs and battlements of Gothic buildings and castles.

Gargoyles have a practical purpose: they're spouts, enabling rainwater to drain off the roof and gush through their mouths, before plummeting to the ground (guttering is a relatively recent innovation!).

However, gargoyles had another intended purpose: to strike fear into the hearts of ill-educated Medieval peasants, scaring them into the church or cathedral. Many gargoyles include elements of the grotesque: exaggerated, evil features or threatening poses, which would have leered down from on-high.

In a world marked with fear and superstition, these creepy creatures would undoubtedly have encouraged many to seek solace and safety inside of a church or cathedral- protected from the demons and ghouls which roamed outside. The gargoyle is one of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture, and sticks in the mind even to today.

The gargoyle is one of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture.

7. The Emphasis Upon the Decorative Style and the Ornate

Gothic architecture marked the first time that beauty and aesthetic values had been incorporated into building design. This revolutionised the way that Medieval architects began to think of buildings. Architecture was no longer just functional - it began to have merit and meaning in its own right.

This doorway of Cologne Dom exemplifies the ornate, Gothic style.

Increasingly ambitious and ornate designs of church, cathedral and castle came to be built. Rivalry and competition drew different groups of builders to conceive and construct grander and more decorative designs, for the glory of the Christian religion.

This tremendous spire of the Dom in Cologne, Germany, shows the reach, height, grandeur and intricate detail of the Gothic style.

How "The Modern Style" Became Associated With Barbarians: A Quick History of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture revolutionised the appearance of Mid-Medieval buildings. Do remember though, that 'gothic' is actually a retrospective term. It wouldn't have been used in Medieval times. This style of architecture was, back then, called the "Modern Style", and it was a revolutionary influence for all castles, churches and palaces in Europe.

The style originally became popular in France from the 1150s, and spread with surprising speed across the whole of Europe.

Some 300 years later, in the 1450s, this style began to go out of fashion. Renaissance architects, the new vogue, started to pour scorn upon this style of architecture.

They derided it as being old-fashioned and uncouth, because it was fantastical, exaggerated and daring. Their Renaissance style was classical, solid, pure, and symmetrical.

To express their scorn, the Renaissance architects actually coined the term 'gothic architecture'. 'Gothic' was a pejorative term, as the goths were barbarians who had wreaked havoc on Europe hundreds of years earlier. The choice of "Gothic architecture" expressed their disgust for an architectural style that they felt had blighted the face of Europe.

Atmospheric, Autumn arches of a ruined cathedral in Wales, UK. :

However, the Gothic style was - and is to today - absolutely unstoppable. In the mid 1600s, the style resurfaced, and was re-invented for more modern audiences. The 'gothic revival' period (or the "neo-Gothic" period; also referred to in England as the "Victorian Gothic") saw many of the characteristics of Gothic architecture re-invented for more modern buildings.

Buildings built in the Gothic revival style include the Houses of Parliament in London; Parliament Hill in Ontario, Washington Cathedral, and many campuses of 1800s Universities worldwide.

These adopted the common characteristics of Gothic architecture in a more modern style.

The Gothic style is still phenomenally popular today, and is the design-of-choice for new churches, cathedrals and similar buildings in Europe and the Americas.

Many of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture have been adopted into more modern architectural designs, and our current aesthetic style owes a great deal to the roots of the Gothic architecture movement in Medieval times.

Modern Examples 

Peer Review 

Sammy did a very good job summarizing the Romanesque and Islamic periods. The pictures were well chosen. I think the picture of the church for the Romanesque period broke down the space well and explained what each room was. 

Allysia did a great job finding interesting modern applications for both the the Romanesque and Islamic. The pictures she found of the historical buildings were beautiful.