Peer Reviews

Mackenzie did a great job breaking down the 4 civilizations of the Americas. It was well written. Sammy showed great modern examples of these cultures displayed in interior design. Both did a good job!

The Americas

The Aztecs

Tenochtitlan

At the time of the Spanish conquest in 1521, the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan was among the largest cities in the world, with perhaps as many as 200,000 inhabitants. In less than 200 years, it evolved from a small settlement on an island in the western swamps of Lake Texcoco into the powerful political, economic, and religious center of the greatest empire of Precolumbian Mexico. Tenochtitlan was a city of great wealth, obtained through the spoils of tribute from conquered regions. Of astounding beauty and impressive scale, its towering pyramids were painted in bright red and blue, and its palaces in dazzling white. Colorful, busy markets with a bewiMost of the construction in Tenochtitlan took place during the reigns of four Aztec kings beginning in the 1470s. Built largely upon land reclaimed from Lake Texcoco, the city was laid out on a grid, inspired by the still visible ruins of the ancient city of Teotihuacan of a thousand years earlier. Its network of streets and canals teemed with canoes that transported people and goods within the city and across the lake to towns on the shore, to which it was linked by three raised causeways. Two aqueducts supplied fresh water.


At the heart of Tenochtitlan was the Sacred Precinct, the religious and ceremonial center not just of the city, but of the empire as well. Surrounded by a masonry wall of serpents, this enclave of about 380 by 330 yards could hold more than 8,000 people within its precincts. The temples of the most important Aztec gods were here. There was also a ball court, priests' quarters, and schools for training young noblemen for the priesthood. Adjacent to the Sacred Precinct, sumptuous palaces of the kings and nobles included beautiful gardens, aviaries, and zoos. Administration buildings were there as well. Commoners lived at a distance and were organized into neighborhoods, called calpulli, with their own local temples and markets. Those populations included laborers and farmers as well as craft specialists such as potters, weavers, sculptors, lapidaries, featherworkers, and soldiers.



On a fateful day in August 1521, life in this magnificent urban center changed forever. Shortly after the fall of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards razed the already devastated city and built the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain on its ruins. They named the new metropolis Mexico City, which today, again, is one of the most populous cities in the world.




AZTEC ARCHITECTURE

The Aztec Empire is remembered for many things. One of its most interesting qualities is the archetecture and construction techniques. The Aztec Empire is not remembered by most people as a mecca of technological and engineering skill. This is a misconseption. The Aztecs built some of the most beautiful and ornate buildings found in South America. The buildings continue to inspire the viewer.

The Aztec people had diverse architectual styles. They built everything from regular homes to palaces and great pyramids. They are best remembered for the twin-temple style pyramid. This would either consist of two matching temples being constructed side by side, or one largge pyramid with two temples on top. Unlike the pyramids of ancient Egypt, these temples were not huge coffins for royalty. The temples were usually set in a city center surrounded by perhaps a palace and several smaller/lessor shrines. There was no single style of temple that was built in the Aztec Empire. In the city of Caliztlahuaca, the temple was built in a circular pattern. This city was also known for its private homes, "...all houses, commoner and elite, had well constructed wall foundations of cut stones." This shows the trend in Aztec cities. The Aztecs led their region in techology and engineering. This is in part due to their city-state government and the competition between cities to build the biggest and the best. The city of Tenochhtitlan was by all accounts the largest and most grandiose, but the other lessor cities still felt the need to compete against each other. Which alongside their development of archetecture the Aztecs established a base of their culture through their written and artistic world.



Aztec Colors & Art


Every color was valuable for the Aztecs, but there were ten or so that had a special meaning: probably the most important was blue-turquoise, because turquoise and jade stones were the equivalent of gold and silver for the Spanish. These metals were known and appreciated by the Aztecs - they linked them to the light and radiance of the Sun and the Moon - but green jade represented fertile vegetation, and blue turquoise mirrored the water of rivers, lakes and seas, and the daytime sky. In Náhuatl (the Aztec language still spoken by some 8-10 million Mexicans) the word for turquoise is ‘xihuitl’ and it’s also used to refer to a herb, comets, the year, and to anything precious. That’s why in the codices the artists often played on the meaning of words: for example, when writing a year sign it was often painted blue or accompanied by a herb leaf; and rulers bore a type of pointed crown (diadem) made of turquoise mosaic, to represent one of the ruler’s titles - ‘Lord of Time or of the Year’ (the god of rulers was called ‘Xiuhtecuhtli’ or ‘Year Lord’ or ‘Lord Precious’).








Common Types of Art


There was a rich variety of art in the empire. Richly coloured clothing, architecture, ceremonial knives, head dresses - many things were adorned with jewels and feathers. It is said that the emperor never wore the same clothes twice. His head piece that supposedly belonged toEmperor Montezuma II is a splash of bright green feathers, embroidered with gold and blue. Noble families had ear pieces, bracelets and necklaces.

Stories were commonly written in pictures, giving more opportunity for art. The pictographs may show the most recent conquest, or the sacrifices of the priests, or even daily life.

Statues made of stone, as well as Aztec masks, pottery, shields, knives, carved pillars and painted walls.

Art could be made with gold, silver, copper, jewels, feathers, coral, clay and stone, to name a few. As mentioned before, many of materials were not native to the region, but had to be bartered for.

Mosaics are very common in ancient Aztec art. Masks would be covered in turquoise, or shells (More on the making and purpose of Aztec masks...). Take for example the beautiful two-headed snake, probably worn as an ornament during ceremonial events, on display at the British Museum (see link below).
Characteristics

Ancient Aztec art was actually very lifelike. Many of their statues of people, as well as animals, look amazingly realistic. They also show age, and a great deal of expression. The art looks alive - but then again, much of it is about death itself. It again reflects the people's passion to avoid death and disaster, and then to conquer even that if it came
Modern Applications





























A Little Incan Architecture













The Trapezoid













Moray





This unique archaeological site is one of the best examples—along with Machu Picchu—of what might be called extreme Inca landscaping. Three enormous pits, each with beautifully curved sides that staircase down like the interiors of titanic flowerpots, have been carved out of the earth to depths of up to 100 feet and more. Air temperatures between the top and bottom layers can differ by more than 20 degrees, which has led some researchers to theorize that Moray was an Inca agricultural site where experiments on crops were conducted.

















Tipon






The Inca were brilliant engineers who strove to integrate their architecture with its natural surroundings. Tipon, a 500-acre site built around a spring near Cusco, has been called their masterpiece of water management. Because the waterworks were constructed as part of a country estate for Inca nobility, Tipon has beautiful stone structures akin to those at Machu Picchu, built in the imperial Inca style, with trapezoidal doors, and serviced by finely cut stone fountains. The intricate baths and irrigation channels still function five centuries after the Spanish conquest, which provides Tipon with an endless, soothing soundtrack of running water.

History Specials: Coroner's Report - Aztec Sacrifice

Peer Review

I think Micah did a good job of summarizing the Gothic period and important architectural elements that defines its architecture. The summary was short and very informative. They video was also a nice choice. 

BUILDING THE GREATEST CATHEDRALS (Documentary) History/Architect/Religion

Romanesque vs Gothic Architecture

  EC

Really good video explaining the differences between Romanesque and Gothic Architecture and how to identify the differences.

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

Fundamentally, Gothic architecture transformed castles, churches, cathedrals and pretty much the whole of Europe!

This style of architecture developed because of common architectural problems in Medieval times.

Back in the 1100s-1200s, building skills were extremely limited. Stone castles were rudimentary - dark, cold, and damp.

Gothic architecture tried to solve some of these unpleasant problems, and created light, pleasant and airy buildings. Before the Gothic, architecture was functional. Now, architecture became beautiful.



Some Gothic buildings - particularly churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster, in York, England (the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe) - were rendered into awe-inspiring places of piety and worship, as a result of their phenomenal Gothic design.

Many castles adopted some of the characteristics of Gothic architecture, too. They became transformed from dank living environments into majestic, light and pleasant residences for the lords and ladies within.

Don't forget, though, that the term 'gothic architecture' is a retrospective term. Medieval people wouldn't have used it. Back in Medieval times, this form of building was called 'the modern style'.

1. Grand, Tall Designs, Which Swept Upwards With Height and Grandeur

The magnificent Gothic exterior of York Minster in the UK.

In the times before Gothic architecture, Early Medieval architects struggled to spread the weight of heavy stone walls.

This meant that most towers needed to be short, and buildings thin, otherwise the sheer weight of higher levels (or large rooms and halls) would collapse into themselves.

One of the fundamental characteristics of Gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers.

This all meant that Gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights. It allowed them to reach up to the heavens - perfect for cathedrals and churches.

The cathedral pictured above is York Minster

This is the famous Dom - or cathedral - of Cologne. It's an amazing example of the Gothic style.

2. The Flying Buttress

These flying buttresses are a feature of Gothic architecture. They're part of the St Vitus Cathedral in Prague Castle.

The flying buttress is the defining external characteristic of Gothic architecture. These buttresses effectively spread the weight of the new designs, taking the weight off the walls and transferring force directly to the ground.

However, what's particularly notable about the flying buttress is that it's decorative, too.

Rather than just being a simple support, buttresses were often elaborately designed and extremely decorative. They appeared to dart and sweep around each building, giving a sense of movement and of grandeur missing from previous architectural designs.

3. The Pointed Arch

The innovation of the pointed arch which was the defining internal characteristic of Gothic architecture. Its significance was both practical and decorative.

The pointed arch effectively distributed the force of heavier ceilings and bulkier designs, and could support much more weight than previous, simple pillars.

The stronger arches allowed for much more vertical height, too - they literally reached up to the heavens.

The Gothic arch wasn't just a workhorse. It had an aesthetic value and beauty which influenced many other features of Gothic design - most notably the vaulted ceiling.

Malbork Castle in Poland has some excellent examples of pointed ceilings.

4. The Vaulted Ceiling

The vaulted ceiling was an innovation which lead on from the achievements of the pointed arch.

The delicate vaulted ceilings of Malbork Castle in Poland. These ceilings are another feature of Gothic architecture.

Irregular, vaulted ceilings utilised the technology of the pointed arch to spread force and weight from upper floors. The arch also provided the impression of height and magnificence, giving the vaulted ceiling a feeling of grandeur and elegance.

The distribution of force within the vaulted ceiling enabled vaults to be built in different shapes and sizes, too. Previously, vaults could only have been circular or rectangular.

The picture above is again an example from Malbork Castle, in Poland.

5. The Light and Airy Interior

Before Gothic architecture, castles and early Medieval buildings were pretty depressing places to live  or worship in.

Castles, in particular, were damp and mold, as most weren't built strong enough to support slate or stone roofing. Although these fortresses could more or less prop up wooden roofs, these let in the rain.

If that wasn't depressing enough, these old environments tended to be dark and dingy. The windows were generally tiny, as the force of the walls would collapse into themselves if they included any larger glass works.

Gothic architecture strove to be the exact antithesis to this older Medieval style of building.

It emphasised light, bright windows and airy interiors, transforming castles and churches into more pleasant and majestic environments.You can see the height, light and airy nature of the inside of Cologne Cathedral. This is a great example of Gothic architecture.

6. The Gargoyles of Gothic Architecture

A classic gargoyle - you can see his dual purpose as a decoration and also as a water-spout.

One of the most notable characteristics of Gothic architecture is the gargoyle. Gargoyles are decorative, monstrous little creatures, perched at along the roofs and battlements of Gothic buildings and castles.

Gargoyles have a practical purpose: they're spouts, enabling rainwater to drain off the roof and gush through their mouths, before plummeting to the ground (guttering is a relatively recent innovation!).

However, gargoyles had another intended purpose: to strike fear into the hearts of ill-educated Medieval peasants, scaring them into the church or cathedral. Many gargoyles include elements of the grotesque: exaggerated, evil features or threatening poses, which would have leered down from on-high.

In a world marked with fear and superstition, these creepy creatures would undoubtedly have encouraged many to seek solace and safety inside of a church or cathedral- protected from the demons and ghouls which roamed outside. The gargoyle is one of the defining characteristics of Gothic architecture, and sticks in the mind even to today.

The gargoyle is one of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture.

7. The Emphasis Upon the Decorative Style and the Ornate

Gothic architecture marked the first time that beauty and aesthetic values had been incorporated into building design. This revolutionised the way that Medieval architects began to think of buildings. Architecture was no longer just functional - it began to have merit and meaning in its own right.

This doorway of Cologne Dom exemplifies the ornate, Gothic style.

Increasingly ambitious and ornate designs of church, cathedral and castle came to be built. Rivalry and competition drew different groups of builders to conceive and construct grander and more decorative designs, for the glory of the Christian religion.

This tremendous spire of the Dom in Cologne, Germany, shows the reach, height, grandeur and intricate detail of the Gothic style.

How "The Modern Style" Became Associated With Barbarians: A Quick History of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture revolutionised the appearance of Mid-Medieval buildings. Do remember though, that 'gothic' is actually a retrospective term. It wouldn't have been used in Medieval times. This style of architecture was, back then, called the "Modern Style", and it was a revolutionary influence for all castles, churches and palaces in Europe.

The style originally became popular in France from the 1150s, and spread with surprising speed across the whole of Europe.

Some 300 years later, in the 1450s, this style began to go out of fashion. Renaissance architects, the new vogue, started to pour scorn upon this style of architecture.

They derided it as being old-fashioned and uncouth, because it was fantastical, exaggerated and daring. Their Renaissance style was classical, solid, pure, and symmetrical.

To express their scorn, the Renaissance architects actually coined the term 'gothic architecture'. 'Gothic' was a pejorative term, as the goths were barbarians who had wreaked havoc on Europe hundreds of years earlier. The choice of "Gothic architecture" expressed their disgust for an architectural style that they felt had blighted the face of Europe.

Atmospheric, Autumn arches of a ruined cathedral in Wales, UK. :

However, the Gothic style was - and is to today - absolutely unstoppable. In the mid 1600s, the style resurfaced, and was re-invented for more modern audiences. The 'gothic revival' period (or the "neo-Gothic" period; also referred to in England as the "Victorian Gothic") saw many of the characteristics of Gothic architecture re-invented for more modern buildings.

Buildings built in the Gothic revival style include the Houses of Parliament in London; Parliament Hill in Ontario, Washington Cathedral, and many campuses of 1800s Universities worldwide.

These adopted the common characteristics of Gothic architecture in a more modern style.

The Gothic style is still phenomenally popular today, and is the design-of-choice for new churches, cathedrals and similar buildings in Europe and the Americas.

Many of the key characteristics of Gothic architecture have been adopted into more modern architectural designs, and our current aesthetic style owes a great deal to the roots of the Gothic architecture movement in Medieval times.

Modern Examples 

Peer Review 

Sammy did a very good job summarizing the Romanesque and Islamic periods. The pictures were well chosen. I think the picture of the church for the Romanesque period broke down the space well and explained what each room was. 

Allysia did a great job finding interesting modern applications for both the the Romanesque and Islamic. The pictures she found of the historical buildings were beautiful. 

The Alhambra, Granada, Spain BBC World Wonders YouTube

Islamic Period

Islam is the religious faith preached by the Arab prophet Mohammed. During the five hundred years after Mohammed's death in A.D. 632, Islam spread far beyond its place of origin in the Arabian Peninsula. The followers of Mohammed, called Muslims, conquered the rest of the Middle East, as well as North Africa, Spain, central Asia, and north and central India. Most of the conquered people accepted the Islamic religion.


As Islam spread, a distinctive style of Islamic art gradually developed. It was used mainly for religious architecture, book illustrations, and the decoration of pottery, metalware, and other useful objects. Islamic art was influenced by the artistic styles of the conquered regions. These styles included late Roman, Byzantine, and Persian art.


The development of Islamic art was also influenced by two religious restrictions. Mohammed warned artists not to imitate God, the creator of all life, by making images of living things. Most religious art therefore consisted of ornamental designs that did not represent people or animals. The second restriction discouraged the use of costly materials. Islamic artists, therefore, worked mainly with brass, clay, and wood. They learned to decorate objects made of these less expensive materials so skillfully that they looked as beautiful as silver or gold.


Design Characteristics


The restriction on making images led to the development of one of the most outstanding features of Islamic art. Artists avoided depicting likelike forms. Instead, they developed a special kind of decoration, called arabesque. An arabesque is a very complicated design. It can consist of twisting patterns of vines, leaves, and flowers. It can be made up of geometric shapes and patterns of straight lines, or it can have curving lines that twist and turn over each other. Sometimes animal shapes were used, but they were always highly stylized and not lifelike.


Another important characteristic of Islamic art is the use of calligraphy, or beautiful handwriting. Arabic, the language of most Islamic texts, can be beautifully written in several different kinds of script. These include the straight, geometric Kufic script and the rounded, flowing Naskhi. Islamic artists used Arabic script (which is read from right to left) as part of their designs for religious books, wall decorations, and art objects. Especially beautiful calligraphy and decoration were used for copies of the Koran, the holy book of the Islamic faith.


Architecture


The religious buildings known as mosques, where Muslims worship, are among the most important examples of Islamic architecture. Other kinds of buildings include madrasahs, or religious schools; tombs; and palaces.


Mosques
The first mosques were simple buildings made of wood and clay. Then, as the world of Islam grew in size and power, large mosques of cut stone and brick were built. Because no Islamic building tradition yet existed, these early mosques were modeled after Christian churches. The oldest existing mosque, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, was built in 691. It has many features of Byzantine Christian churches, including Grecian-style columns and mosaic decorations.


Muslim architects soon began to develop a new type of religious building, designed specifically for Islamic worship. An early example of the new design is the Great Mosque in Damascus, begun about 705. It is entered through a rectangular court with covered passageways on three sides. In the court is a fountain for washing before prayer. The fourth wall of the court is closest to Mecca, the holy city of Islam. All Muslims face in the direction of Mecca when they pray. The wall is marked by a small, arched prayer niche. Over the aisle leading to this niche is a dome. A tower, or minaret, is used to call the faithful to prayer.


Other architects developed variations on this basic style. Some mosques have domes over each end of the aisle leading to the prayer niche. Other mosques have a large central dome. Some domes are ridged on the outside and resemble large melons. Inside, the ceilings of domes are often covered with decorative forms that resemble honeycombs, scales, or stalactites (icicle-like formations found in caves). Many mosques, especially those in Spain, North Africa, and Persia, are covered with tiles. In the 1500's and 1600's mosques became more complex, with many domes and minarets. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also called the Blue Mosque), in Istanbul, Turkey, is a typical example.





Madrasahs and Tombs
Madrasahs, or religious schools, were often built next to mosques. They are four-sided structures built around a central court. Each side has a large arched hall that opens onto the courtyard. Students attended lectures in the large halls and lived in smaller rooms within the structure.


Sometimes the tomb of a ruler was part of a complex of buildings that also included a mosque and a madrasah. The tomb-mosque of Sultan Hasan, built in the mid-1300's in Cairo, Egypt, is such a complex. It is laid out like a cross, with four halls opening off a large square court.


Another well-known tomb is that of the Tatar warrior Tamerlane, which was built in the city of Samarkand about 1400. (Today Samarkand is part of Uzbekistan.) This building has a melon-shaped dome covered with brilliant blue and gold tiles. The tiles are made of glazed earthenware cut into various sizes and arranged in elaborate patterns. Perhaps the most famous Islamic tomb of all is the Taj Mahal in Agra, India. It was built in the 1600's by the ruler Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife. The Taj Mahal is so renowned that its very name calls up images of almost unreal splendor and beauty. An article on the Taj Mahal can be found in this encyclopedia.


Palaces
The early Muslim rulers, or caliphs, were used to desert life; they did not like living in crowded cities. They built palaces in the desert where they could go to relax and hunt. The palaces looked like Roman fortresses, for they were built of stone and surrounded by walls with big towers. The throne rooms, prayer rooms, baths, and living quarters were decorated with murals and mosaics.


In the 700's the capital of the Muslim world moved from Damascus, Syria, to Baghdad, Mesopotamia (now Iraq). The architecture of palaces changed as a result of the move. Domed palaces were built of brick covered with thick layers of stucco, and the interiors were decorated with stucco reliefs. In the Jawsaq Palace, built about 850 in Samarra, Mesopotamia, the stucco ornament was of three distinct styles. One type showed deeply carved vine forms, and another added patterns to the surface of the main design. The third style used more abstract patterns, as in the metalwork of Central Asian nomads. These three styles contributed to the development of arabesque decoration, which became typical of Muslim art all over the world.


Of later palaces, the Alhambra at Granada, Spain, built in the 1300's, is the best known. Its many rooms are built around three open courts. The Court of the Myrtles features a long rectangular pool flanked by hedges. In the center of the inner Court of the Lions stands a fountain supported by twelve lions. The lower part of the palace walls are decorated with colored tiles set in geometric patterns. Painted and gilded plaster designs cover the upper part of the walls. Arabic inscriptions in the midst of the ornament say that there is "no conqueror but Allah."










The Alhambra







The Alhambra







The Alhambra







Mohammed Ali Mosque, Egypt







Royal Mosque, Pakistan













The Alhambra


Modern Examples

Romanesque Period

What is Romanesque Architecture?

Romanesque is an architectural style that dominated in Western Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries, and whose name means “from Rome.” This was a term coined in the 19th century, reflecting that fact that Romanesque buildings, like those of the ancient Roman Empire, tend to display a strong sense of proportion and order, are solid and robust, and feature numerous rounded arches and vaults (a key difference from Greek architecture, which does not use arches and vaults).



The sixth-century church of St Vitale in Ravenna, Italy (left), had a major influence on the court buildings of one of the greatest European emperors: Charlemagne. In turn, Charlemagne's palace complex, (right) constructed around 800, influenced the architecture of much of western Europe, leading to the development of the Romanesque style.



Sources of Influence

Despite its name, the inspiration behind Romanesque architecture was not Rome, but the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. The church of St Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, dating from the 6th century, was one building that had a major influence: it inspired the palace complex of the emperor Charlemagne in Aachen, Germany, built around 800 AD.

Charlemagne was a key figure of the middle ages, the first ruler to reunite Western Europe since the Roman Empire, and a shaper of European identity. Charlemagne's court at Aachen was legendary: it had a major influence on the culture — including the architecture — of much of western Europe. Romanesque architecture developed from the buildings constructed during Charlemagne's reign.



The Context in which the Romanesque Developed

Romanesque architecture developed at a time of increasing religious fervour and a rise in the tradition of pilgrimages to the shrines of important saints. To accommodate these pilgrims, churches became larger, and tended to be cross-like in shape. This shape had the advantage of allowing more people to view sacred relics put on display in the centre of the two arms of the cross.
Key Features of Romanesque Architecture

The interiors of Romanesque churches were usually covered with brightly-coloured sculptures, carvings, and paintings, depicting scenes from the Bible. Much of the population of Europe at the time was illiterate, and images were therefore a very useful way of conveying a religious message.

The move from wooden to stone buildings was also a characteristic of the period in which Romanesque architecture developed.

Building large churches in stone meant that the walls had to be extremely thick, and windows quite small (to prevent the building collapsing). With time and practise, less bulky construction techniques became possible. These, first seen in key Romanesque buildings such as Durham Cathedral, were refined with time, leading to the style that followed on from Romanesque: Gothic (13th-15th centuries).



A 12th century Norman tower in Bury St Edmonds, Suffolk, England, showing many of the typical features of Romanesque architecture: namely solid, massive construction with small round-arched windows. The interlocking arches and the carved geometric patterns were very popular forms of architectural ornamentation.



The Semicircular Arch

The semicircular arch was very popular in the Roman Empire. This similarity is likely where the term 'Romanesque' originated. The semicircular arch is strong and durable. Romanesque architects love this arch, and they use it everywhere: doors, windows, ceilings, arcades.
Vaulting


Three types of vaulting popular in Romanesque architecture

Romanesque architects were nothing if not ambitious. Not only did they want to build huge new churches, but they also wanted to roof those churches with masonry, not wood. Now, you can't just run masonry horizontally; you can't build a ceiling like you would a wall. The pieces would fall out.

To tackle this problem, Romanesque architects turned to their favorite form: the semicircular arch. An arch allows you to build unsupported openings out of masonry. It only took a little bit of cleverness to stretch this arch out, making a sort of tunnel. When this arched tunnel is used to roof a building, it's called vaulting. There were three sorts of vaulting popular in Romanesque times. First was the barrel vault. Next came the groin vault, which was later improved to ribbed vault.

Modern Examples

Romanesque Architecture: Characteristics, Examples & History

 

Peer Reviews

 

 

 

Jalee did a great job with the Early Christian and Byzantine posts. The video she posted from History.com about the Byzantine empire and its fall was a good choice. The pictures and examples she gave for both periods were also well chosen.

 

Alecia wrote a good summary about the Early Christian period. She posted interesting pictures of modern applications for the Byzantine period. I think both posts on these two periods were informative and well done.

 

 

 

 



Saint Mark's Basilica, Venice, begun 1063

LaunchPad: Making Ancient and Byzantine Mosaics

The Byzantine Empire

Time period: 330 - 1453 A.D.

Historical Background

Constantine established Constantinople as Rome’s capital, so the fall of Rome to the Goths did not end the empire, it merely relocated its center. Byzantine culture was a continuation of classical Greece and Rome but was distinctive in the way that it synthesized those influences with European and Islamic ones.

Byzantine history spans the period from the late Roman Empire to the beginning of the modern age. Constantine the Great, first Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, moved his capital to Byzantion in 330, renaming the city Constantinople. The state he ruled was Byzant, but the citizens called themselves Romans.

The Byzantine Empire was heir to the Roman Empire. With the passage of time Byzantine civilization became distinct, as Greek influence increased and it dealt with the cultural impacts of Europe, Asia, and, after the seventh century, Islam.

During the Middle Ages, when the concept of Europe developed, Byzantium was in decline and isolated from the West. Thus Europe came into being without Byzantium, the successor to the Roman Empire. By the time Europe was a full-blown concept, Byzantium was no longer a remnant of the Roman Empire, and Constantinople was part of the Ottoman Empire.

Architecture

The Golden Age of Byzantine Architecture was under the rule of Justian in 527-565.  It was during this period that the most famous examples of all Byzantine Architecture was built, the Hagia Sophia.  The Hagia Sophia was rebuilt from 532 to 537 after the previous church was destroyed by riots .  This church has some unique features which became the patterns for Byzantine Architecture for years after.  

    The style of the Hagia Sophia or Church of Divine Wisdom, was to have a large dome in the middle of the structure.   The dome has a unique form in that it rest on 4 massive pillars which are arranged in a square.    The dome remained the main focus of the Byzantine Church for the remainder of the empire.  The Eastern Orthodox preferred  a low light, somber, and almost mysterious mood in their services.  The clergy worked often behind the scenes with brief appearances.  They did not embrace the loud organs and congregational  worship which is seen in the western Catholic Church.  So the Hagia Sophia became the model for the Byzantine church because was an architectural style that fit with the type of worship the Orthodox church wanted to emphasize. 

 

Art

 

The style that characterized Byzantine art was almost entirely concerned with religious expression; specifically with the translation of church theology into artistic terms. Byzantine architecture and painting (little sculpture was produced during the Byzantine era) remained uniform and anonymous and developed within a rigid tradition. The result was a sophistication of style rarely equaled in Western art.
Byzantine visual art began with mosaics decorating the walls and domes of churches, as well fresco wall-paintings. So beautiful was the effect of these mosaics that the form was taken up in Italy, especially in Rome and Ravenna. A less public art form in Constantinople, was the icon (from the Greek word 'eikon' meaning 'image') - the holy image panel-paintings which were developed in the monasteries of the eastern church, using encaustic wax paint on portable wooden panels. The greatest collection of this type of early biblical art is in the monastery of St Catherine in Sinai, founded in the 6th century by the Emperor Justinian.

Saint Mark’s Basilica is a cathedral located on St. Mark’s Square in the city of Venice, Italy. It is one of the attractive cathedrals in the city and it is famous for its uniqueness in terms of the design and the magnificent interior as well as being an example of the Byzantine architecture. Many years ago, however, it did not serve as a cathedral. In fact, it was a chapel for the Venetian City and its rulers. Since the 11th century onwards, the cathedral was known by the nickname “Church of Gold,” or “Chiesad’Oro” in Italian.



St. Mark's Basilica - Venice





 

Modern Examples